Diaper candidiasis = التهاب الجلد الحفاظي بالمبيضات البيض |
Candidiasis Candida albicans is the most common cause of human candidal infections,1 but other pathogenic species include Candida glabrata, Candida parapsilosis, Candida tropicalis, Candida krusei, Candida lusitaniae, and Candida stellatoidea. PathophysiologyInfections caused by Candida may affect numerous organ systems, such as the eyes, lungs, kidneys, heart, and CNS. Skin The most common manifestation of candidal infection is diaper dermatitis in infants. Candida organisms can also cause intertrigo in older individuals. Intertrigo has a predilection for dark moist areas, such as the groin or fat folds. Predisposing conditions include diabetes mellitus, obesity, and hyperhidrosis. Nails A chronic paronychia may be caused by one of several Candida species. Candida organisms can also cause onychomycosis, including total nail dystrophy due to chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMCC), a rare T-cell disorder. Mucous membranes Thrush, or oral candidiasis, is also common in infants. Oral candidiasis may also be an adverse effect from using inhaled corticosteroids for asthma due to oral deposition. Patients who are immunocompromised may suffer from candidal esophagitis as well as thrush. Genitals Vaginal yeast infections affect nearly 75% of women. Male partners may develop balanitis or balanoposthitis. Individuals with chronic indwelling catheters are also predisposed to recurrent candidal infections. Systemic Candida organisms can cause severe systemic infections in immunocompromised patients, compared with benign cutaneous or localized infections in immunocompetent patients. Reports of systemic candidiasis are common in children with acquired immunodeficiency syndrome (AIDS) and other immune deficiencies, as well as in very low birth weight premature infants. Risk factors for candidemia in critically ill children have been identified.47 Manifestations include fungemia, endophthalmitis, meningitis, renal or bladder bezoars, and arthritis. Virulence factors Numerous factors can contribute to the likelihood of candidal infections. An intact skin barrier is protective. Candidal infections are promoted in the face of lymphocyte dysfunction, as is observed in persons with AIDS and those with CMCC. Adherence of Candida organisms to oral and vaginal epithelium is believed to be promoted by biologic factors (eg, fibronectin in thromboses) and by iatrogenic factors (eg, presence of plastic catheters, disruption of normal bacterial flora). In neonates, risk factors include indwelling catheters, prolonged antibiotic use, necrotizing enterocolitis, previous bloodstream infections, total parenteral nutrition, and low birth weight. Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis CMCC is a heterogeneous group of disorders characterized by chronic candidal infections of the nails, skin, and mucous membranes. Most CMCC disorders are autosomal recessive and related to a mutation in the AIRE gene. Lymphocyte numbers are normal; however, response to in vitro exposure to candidal antigen is absent. Thrush occurs in approximately 2-5% of healthy newborns and a slightly higher percentage of infants in the first year of life. Vaginal candidal infections occur in approximately 75% of women, and 40-50% of women experience recurrence. Approximately 2-5% of premature infants weighing less than 1500 g develop disseminated disease.
HistoryThrush Cutaneous candidiasis Most commonly affected areas are the diaper area in infants and toddlers and abdominal fat folds and groin in older individuals. Paronychia and onychomycosis Paronychia is usually painful. Vulvovaginitis Dyspareunia is often present. Otitis externa Otitis externa is found most commonly in tropical and subtropical climates. Malnutrition and immunosuppression are risk factors. Candidiasis is clinically difficult to distinguish from other causes of otitis externa. GI candidiasis Esophagitis should be suspected in individuals who are immunocompromised when oral candidiasis is present. Symptoms include dysphagia and odynophagia. Risk of esophagitis is elevated in children taking H2 blockers. Pneumonia Cystitis Endophthalmitis Risk factors include low birth weight and prolonged hospitalization. CNS infections Risk factors include indwelling catheters (especially shunts), prematurity, malnutrition, immunodeficiency, and organ transplantation. Endocarditis Hepatic (hepatosplenic) candidiasis Hepatic candidiasis commonly occurs in oncology patients after a prolonged course of neutropenia. Symptoms develop with return of neutrophils. PhysicalThrush
Scraping of the lesions may reveal erythema and bleeding at the base (see following image). The plaques do not scrape off easily. Cutaneous candidiasis Candidal diaper dermatitis is generally confluent in intertriginous areas, whereas generic diaper dermatitis may demonstrate sparing in the folds.
Paronychia and onychomycosis Nail involvement usually stems from long-standing paronychia and causes a yellow discoloration of the nail, often with separation of the nail from the nail bed. Genital candidiasis With balanitis, lesions are usually observed on the glans penis and consist of erythematous plaques, pustules, or erosions. GI disease With esophagitis, oral candidiasis may or may not be present. Weight loss is common. Otitis externa A grayish membrane may be present in the canal. Hepatic candidiasis Endocarditis Symptoms relating to embolization to other organs (eg, CNS, kidneys, lungs, retina and choroid, skin) may be present. Endophthalmitis CNS infections CausesCandidal infections have differing presentations in patients who are immunocompetent versus persons who are immunocompromised. Patient who is immunocompetent Other risk factors include obesity, heat, and excessive sweating. Patient who is immunocompromised Candida species are frequent causes of central venous catheter infections. Immunosuppression may also cause systemic candidiasis, which may present as fungemia or funguria. Candida species may cause fungal bezoars in the kidney or bladder, or candidiasis may cause abscesses in the liver or spleen. Candidal meningitis, arthritis, and endophthalmitis all have been reported. Neonates Chronic mucocutaneous candidiasis (CMCC)
Treatment of candidal infections is primarily accomplished with appropriate antifungal drugs.2 Today, neonatal intensive care units in some centers are routinely starting fluconazole prophylaxis to very low birth weight neonates and those with other risk factors to prevent invasive candidiasis
MedicationCandidal infections are sensitive to a broad range of antifungal agents. Nystatin and one of the imidazoles are the most commonly used agents for oral or cutaneous candidiasis. Noting the resistance pattern in your area is important; fluconazole-resistant Candida has been reported. New antifungals include the echinocandins (eg, caspofungin, micafungin, anidulafungin). The mechanism of action of this group is to interfere with the cell wall integrity inhibiting 1,3 beta-D-glucan synthase. Caspofungin has recently been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for use in the pediatric population. Topical antifungals (oral preparations)These agents are used for the treatment of oral candidiasis (thrush). Nystatin oral suspension (Nilstat)Drug of choice (DOC) for PO candidiasis. Fungicidal and fungistatic antibiotic obtained from Streptomyces noursei. Adult4-6 mL (ie, 400,000-600,000 U) PO swish and spit qid until 48 h after lesions resolve PediatricPremature infants: 0.25-0.5 mL to each side of mouth qid until 48 h after lesions resolve None reported Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyB - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals PrecautionsSafe in breastfeeding because PO susp is poorly absorbed Gentian violetEffective as second-line agent for PO candidiasis resistant to nystatin. AdultApply to affected areas tid PediatricAdminister as in adults None reported Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsStains skin and clothing Topical antifungals (dermatologic)These agents are used to treat cutaneous candidiasis. Nystatin cream (Mycostatin, Nilstat)DOC in cutaneous candidiasis. Each gram of cream contains 100,000 U. AdultApply bid/qid to affected areas until 48 h after resolution of lesions PediatricAdminister as in adults None reported Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyB - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals PrecautionsNot for treatment of systemic fungal infections; avoid contact with eyes; if irritation or sensitivity develops, discontinue use and institute appropriate therapy Clotrimazole 1% cream (Lotrimin, Mycelex)Second-line agent in treatment of cutaneous candidiasis. AdultApply to affected area bid until 48 h after resolution of lesions PediatricAdminister as in adults None reported Documented hypersensitivity
B - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals PrecautionsNot for treatment of systemic fungal infections; avoid contact with eyes; if irritation or sensitivity develops, discontinue use and institute appropriate therapy Miconazole 2% cream (Absorbine, Micatin)Alternate topical antifungal. Lotion is preferred in intertriginous areas. If cream is used, apply sparingly to avoid maceration effects. AdultApply to affected areas bid until 48 h after resolution of lesions PediatricAdminister as in adults
Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsIf sensitivity or chemical irritation occurs, discontinue use; use only externally; avoid contact with eyes Systemic antifungals (oral)These agents are used for treatment of cutaneous infections refractory to treatment by topical agents or as adjunctive therapy for systemic candidal infection. Fluconazole oral (Diflucan)Synthetic oral antifungal (broad-spectrum bistriazole) that selectively inhibits fungal CYP450 and sterol C-14 alpha-demethylation, which prevents conversion of lanosterol to ergosterol, thereby disrupting cellular membranes. AdultVulvovaginitis: 150 mg PO once PediatricOropharyngeal candidiasis: 6 mg/kg PO on day 1, followed by 3 mg/kg/d Inhibits CYP2C19 and 3A4; levels may increase with hydrochlorothiazide; levels may decrease with chronic coadministration of rifampin; coadministration may decrease phenytoin clearance; may increase concentrations of theophylline, tolbutamide, glyburide, and glipizide; effects of anticoagulants may increase with coadministration; increases in cyclosporine concentrations may occur when administered concurrently Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsAdjust dose for renal insufficiency; monitor closely if rashes develop and discontinue drug if lesions progress; may cause clinical hepatitis, cholestasis, and fulminant hepatic failure (including death) with underlying medical conditions (eg, AIDS, malignancy) and while taking multiple concomitant medications; not recommended for mothers who are breastfeeding Itraconazole (Sporanox)Effective PO systemic antifungal. Fungistatic activity. Synthetic triazole antifungal agent that slows fungal cell growth by inhibiting CYP450-dependent synthesis of ergosterol, a vital component of fungal cell membranes.
Oral candidiasis: 100 mg PO once daily for 15 d Vulvovaginitis: 200 mg PO bid for 1-3 d Pediatric3-5 mg/kg/d PO divided qd/bid Potent inhibitor of CYP3A4; antacids may reduce absorption of itraconazole; edema may occur with coadministration of calcium channel blockers (eg, amlodipine, nifedipine); hypoglycemia may occur with sulfonylureas; may increase tacrolimus and cyclosporine plasma concentrations when high doses are used; rhabdomyolysis may occur with coadministration of HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (lovastatin or simvastatin); coadministration with cisapride can cause cardiac rhythm abnormalities and death; may increase digoxin levels; coadministration may increase plasma levels of midazolam, alprazolam, or triazolam; phenytoin and rifampin may reduce itraconazole levels (phenytoin metabolism may be altered) Documented hypersensitivity; coadministration with cisapride may cause adverse cardiovascular effects (possibly death); coadministration with alprazolam and triazolam PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsMay cause nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, hypokalemia, and elevated transaminases; hepatic metabolism; does not penetrate CSF well Ketoconazole (Nizoral)Well absorbed PO. Administer with food to reduce nausea and vomiting. Imidazole broad-spectrum antifungal agent. Inhibits synthesis of ergosterol, causing cellular components to leak, resulting in fungal cell death. AdultSuperficial candidal infection (PO, vaginal, esophageal): 200 mg PO once daily for 1-2 wk Pediatric<2 years: Not established Potent inhibitor of CYP3A4; isoniazid may decrease bioavailability; coadministration decreases effects of either rifampin or ketoconazole; may increase effect of anticoagulants; may increase toxicity of corticosteroids and cyclosporine (cyclosporine dosage can be adjusted); may decrease theophylline levels Documented hypersensitivity; fungal meningitis PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsHepatotoxicity may occur; may reversibly decrease corticosteroid serum levels (adverse effects avoided with dose of 200-400 mg/d); administer antacid, anticholinergics, or H2 blockers at least 2 h after taking Flucytosine (Ancobon)Also known as 5-FC. Converted to fluorouracil after penetrating fungal cells. Inhibits RNA and protein synthesis. Active against Candida and Cryptococcus species and generally used in combination with amphotericin B.
50-150 mg/kg/d PO divided q6h PediatricNeonates: 80-160 mg/kg/d PO divided q6h Amphotericin B may increase toxicity of flucytosine; cytosine may inactivate flucytosine Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsMonitor CBC count, creatinine, alkaline phosphatase, AST, and ALT; may cause anemia, leukopenia, or thrombocytopenia; therapeutic levels 25-100 mg/L; adjust dose in renal failure Posaconazole (Noxafil)Triazole antifungal agent. Blocks ergosterol synthesis by inhibiting the enzyme lanosterol 14-alpha-demethylase and sterol precursor accumulation. This action results in cell membrane disruption. Available as oral susp (200 mg/5 mL). Indicated for prophylaxis of invasive Aspergillus and Candida infections in patients at high risk due to severe immunosuppression. Adult200 mg (5 mL) PO tid with food or liquid nutritional supplement to enhance absorption Pediatric<13 years: Not established Metabolized via UDP glucuronidation; P-gp efflux substrate; CYP3A4 inhibitor Documented hypersensitivity; coadministration with ergot alkaloids; coadministration with CYP3A4 substrates likely to result in serious toxicities (eg, terfenadine, astemizole, cisapride, pimozide, halofantrine, quinidine) PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsCommon adverse effects include nausea, vomiting, diarrhea, rash, hypokalemia, thrombocytopenia, and elevated liver enzyme levels; closely monitor patients with severe diarrhea or vomiting for breakthrough fungal infections; rare adverse events include arrhythmias caused by QTc prolongation, bilirubinemia, or liver function impairment; caution with preexisting cardiac risk factors (eg, history of arrhythmia, hypokalemia, hypomagnesemia); food improves absorption and provides optimal serum concentration; shake well before use; administer with measuring spoon provided in package; avoid if breastfeeding Voriconazole oral (Vfend)Used for primary treatment of invasive aspergillosis and salvage treatment of Fusarium species or Scedosporium apiospermum infections. A triazole antifungal agent that inhibits fungal CYP450-mediated 14 alpha-lanosterol demethylation, which is essential in fungal ergosterol biosynthesis. Adult<40 kg: 100 mg PO q12h, may increase to 150 mg q12h if inadequate response PediatricNot established; limited data suggest initial maintenance dose of 3-5 mg/kg/dose PO q12h for children <25 kg CYP450 2C19 (highest affinity), 2C9, and 3A4 (minor) substrate and inhibitor; CYP450 inducers (eg, rifampin) have shown to decrease steady state peak plasma levels by up to 93%; may increase serum levels of drugs metabolized by CYP450 2C19 or 2C9, of which some are contraindicated (eg, sirolimus, pimozide, quinidine, cisapride, ergot alkaloids), other may need more frequent monitoring (eg, cyclosporine, tacrolimus, warfarin, HMG CoA inhibitors, benzodiazepines, calcium channel blockers)
PregnancyD - Fetal risk shown in humans; use only if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsDecrease maintenance dose with hepatic dysfunction; common adverse effects include visual disturbances, fever, rash, vomiting, nausea, diarrhea, headache, sepsis, peripheral edema, abdominal pain, rash (including Stevens-Johnson Syndrome and phototoxicity), and respiratory disorder; rare cases of severe hepatotoxicity have been reported; administer PO 1 h ac or pc Systemic antifungals (intravenous)The mechanism of action may involve an alteration of RNA and DNA metabolism or an intracellular accumulation of peroxide that is toxic to the fungal cell. Fluconazole IV (Diflucan)Second-line agent for treatment of systemic candidal infection. Adult400 mg IV as loading dose followed by 200 mg IV once daily PediatricNeonates: 6-12 mg/kg IV as loading dose followed by 3-6 mg/kg/d once daily
Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsAdjust dose for renal insufficiency; monitor closely if rashes develop and discontinue drug if lesions progress; may cause clinical hepatitis, cholestasis, and fulminant hepatic failure (including death) with underlying medical conditions (eg, AIDS, malignancy) and while taking multiple concomitant medications; not recommended for mothers who are breastfeeding Amphotericin B, liposome (AmBisome)Amphotericin B in a 10% lipid emulsion appears to have less nephrotoxicity than standard preparation of amphotericin. Lipid emulsion does not appear to decrease antifungal properties of amphotericin B. Adult5 mg/kg IV as single infusion administered no faster than 2.5 mg/kg/h PediatricAdminister as in adults Antineoplastic agents or other nephrotoxic drugs (eg, aminoglycosides, cyclosporine) may enhance potential of amphotericin B for renal toxicity, bronchospasm, and hypotension; corticosteroids, digitalis, and thiazides may potentiate hypokalemia Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyB - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals PrecautionsAlthough less nephrotoxic than standard amphotericin preparations, use caution in patients with decreased renal function; monitor BUN and creatinine levels; LFT, electrolytes, and CBC count; may require premedication with antihistamines, corticosteroids or analgesics to decrease risk of headache, chills, fever, or rigors Amphotericin B desoxycholate (Amphocin, Fungizone)DOC for treatment of systemic fungal infections. Polyene antibiotic produced by strain of Streptomyces nodosus; can be fungistatic or fungicidal. Binds to sterols (eg, ergosterol) in fungal cell membrane, causing intracellular components to leak with subsequent fungal cell death. AdultTest dose: 1 mg IV administered over 30 min PediatricTest dose: 0.1 mg/kg IV, not to exceed 1 mg; administer over 20-60 min Antineoplastic agents or other nephrotoxic drugs (eg, aminoglycosides, cyclosporine) may enhance potential of amphotericin B for renal toxicity, bronchospasm, and hypotension; corticosteroids, digitalis, and thiazides may potentiate hypokalemia Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyB - Fetal risk not confirmed in studies in humans but has been shown in some studies in animals PrecautionsMonitor renal function, serum electrolytes (eg, magnesium, potassium), LFT, CBC count, and hemoglobin concentrations; resume therapy at lowest level (eg, 0.25 mg/kg) when therapy is interrupted for >7 d; hypoxemia, acute dyspnea, and interstitial infiltrates may occur in patients who are neutropenic and who are receiving leukocyte transfusions (separate time of amphotericin infusion from time of leukocyte transfusion); fever and chills are common after first few administrations, premedication with antihistamines, corticosteroids, and analgesics may diminish reaction; rare acute reactions may include hypotension, bronchospasm, arrhythmias, and shock Caspofungin (Cancidas)First of a new class of antifungal drugs (glucan synthesis inhibitors). Inhibits synthesis of beta-(1,3)-D-glucan, an essential component of fungal cell wall. Adult50 mg IV qd Pediatric<3 months: Not established Coadministration with cyclosporine may increase risk of hepatotoxicity; carbamazepine, nelfinavir, efavirenz, or dexamethasone may decrease levels of caspofungin; caspofungin may decrease levels of tacrolimus; rifampin decreases caspofungin levels by 30% (ie, adjust dose to 70 mg/d) Documented hypersensitivity PregnancyC - Fetal risk revealed in studies in animals but not established or not studied in humans; may use if benefits outweigh risk to fetus PrecautionsCaution in moderate hepatic dysfunction (ie, decrease dose to 35 mg/d); may exacerbate pre-existing renal dysfunction or myelosuppression Voriconazole IV (Vfend)Used for primary treatment of invasive aspergillosis and salvage treatment of Fusarium species or Scedosporium apiospermum infections. A triazole antifungal agent that inhibits fungal CYP450-mediated 14 alpha-lanosterol demethylation, which is essential in fungal ergosterol biosynthesis. May be used as combination therapy in Candidemia AdultLoading dose: 6 mg/kg IV q12h infused over 2 h for 2 doses PediatricNot established; in 2 reviews, the dosing recommended for invasive fungal disease was 6 mg/kg IV q12h for 2 doses, then 4 mg/kg IV q12h |